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Traveling to the north of Europe brings a change in landscape and a change in culture. The country of Norway, known for its scenic fjords, has a close connection to the water, and Oslo, the largest city, demonstrates that with its position along a bay. While it has not always been the capital city, Oslo has always been strategically important for Norway and its royal family. It was for this reason that King Haakon V began construction on the Akershus Fortress in the late 1290s. As large walled residence, this castle has stood the test of time – and several unsuccessful sieges over the centuries. Although built for defense, it rose to even greater prominence as the political capital of Norway shifted from Bergen to Oslo over the centuries. By the mid-1600s it was the main royal residence and remodeled with numerous towers and grand state rooms. In fact, when Oslo was rebuilt following a fire in 1624, the entire city was moved, to make Akershus the new hub. (Oslo was also renamed to Christiania, until 1925, to make matters more or less confusing). Today, the royals have moved out of Akershus, only maintaining their ties in the family mausoleum. Instead, the fortress has new life as a public museum, and as ever, serves as the focal point of the Oslo waterline.

Ireland has been called the Emerald Isle, and it isn’t hard to see why! Before arriving, even the casual visitor is greeted by green fields, from the window of an airplane. The majority of the island is devoted to pastures, filled with lush green grass, which never seem to get dull – even in the depths of winter. For the most part, the scenery is filled with gentle hills, dotted in sheep, that roll by, all the way to the sea. Those waters have played a significant part in Irish culture, with the coming and going of people and ideas. Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, is said to have arrived in the 400s AD, and to have expelled the snakes shortly thereafter. Much less welcome visitors were the bands of Vikings which raided the Irish settlements from time to time! Migration can be a touchy subject for the Irish, trying to untangle the contributions of various visitors, and trace those of Irish descent who emigrated across oceans. Romans, Normans and the British all came to the island and left their mark, creating a distinctly Irish culture remains, with their characteristic crosses, music and traditions. Bring your umbrella and good walking boots, and you are sure to see a lot of green!

Is there anything more stereotypical of an English garden than roses? They certainly take center stage around June, bursting out in all shapes and colors. While some roses are known for their showiness, others fill the air with a heady perfume. Generally known as “old roses” the historic and scented varieties were in danger of disappearing from the English countryside in the mid 1900s. However, Graham Thomas, a gardener who worked side by side with the National Trust for many years, was determined to preserve them. Not only did he write many books to highlight these extraordinary and delicate flowers, but he also collected many old roses from around the world. While he may be gone, that collection is still alive and well, located in the walled garden at Mottisfont in Hampshire, where it has been since 1972. Anyone fortunate enough to visit in mid-June, will be bowled over by the garden, which delights several senses: you can hear the hum of bees well before passing by the stately brick walls, see an abundance of roses in all colors, and smell the beautiful fragrance even before passing the garden gate. Definitely a jewel in the English countryside and a treasure for rose-lovers everywhere!

The summer sunshine is intense in the city of Malaga, located in southern Spain. With its location on the Costa del Sol, right on the Mediterranean, it has been home to many different people in its over 2,800-year lifespan. The evidence is all around the city, from the Roman theater to the fortresses occupying the hillsides. These fortresses are still imposing, although their usefulness has long since passed. They are a reminder of the people who left perhaps the greatest mark on the region - the Moors, who resided in Malaga from the 700s all the way to 1487. Originally serving as a defense against pirates in the 1000s, the fortresses were enlarged and redecorated as centuries passed. Even after several centuries of Spanish ownership, the design remains distinctly Moorish, with the characteristic arches and columns throughout. The lower part of the fortress, which served as the royal residence, is known as the Alcazaba, and contains small gardens and numerous water features in the many courtyards. If you care to climb further, up a steep hill, the Alcazaba is connected to the upper fortress, known as the castle of Gibralfaro. It can be a tough climb, but the views over Malaga are worth the effort.

A traveler in China will see many unique sites – ancient and modern. In the Sichuan Province, the city of Chengdu stands out for its long history and unique cuisine, officially recognized as a UNESCO city of gastronomy. A taste of hot pot (meat and vegetables cooked in a soup) is a must, if you can stand the spice! However, if you are in Chengdu, you may have the opportunity to see a different sort of Chinese symbol: the panda. It makes sense, as the vast majority of all giant pandas live within the Sichuan Province. The pandas in Chengdu aren’t wild but are part of an ongoing effort to save this endangered species. In 1987, the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding opened its doors, starting with 6 rescued pandas. Through breeding programs and partnerships with zoos around the world, the Research Base has ensured over 120 births, and now has a resident panda population of over 80 animals. Visitors are invited to look around and watch the pandas in all stages of life – from the very young to very old, and all sorts of family groups in between – surrounded in the bamboo they love to eat. Just don’t expect too much movement from the pandas, as they are notoriously lazy, preferring not to expend energy whenever possible. However, to a visitor, that means a much better look at one of the worlds most famous animals!

The city of Kotor is a gem, located in a secluded bay along the Montenegro coast. Nestled by the water, at the foothills of the surrounding mountains, the city has always held a prominent position in the region. As a major trading port in the Adriatic Sea, it had a strong amount of independence throughout its existence, but eventually falling into obscurity during the turmoil of world wars. Recent decades has seen a revival in its popularity, driven by tourism. And with a past stretching back centuries, it is little wonder, since Kotor maintains a charming old-world feel, with its stone streets and architecture. However, it is the fortifications that hold it all together, and which have earned Kotor a place as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The walls which surround the old city were built by the Venetians during their rule over the city from 1420 – 1797. Impressive bastions greet any visitor arriving by sea, but the defensive walls don’t stop there. Instead, they scale the side of the mountain, visible even from the harbor, protecting Kotor from its foes in all directions. While the need for walls may have passed, the adventurous can still walk along the ancient fortifications. More accurately, they can elect to climb the 100s of steps up, up and up the steep mountain, for a view of the city spread out below!

If you wish to find the oldest continually operating republic and the smallest, then you must travel to the Republic of San Marino. These days, the small country is quiet and prosperous, maintaining its ancient traditions and welcoming tourists. However, maintaining its sovereignty as an enclave, completely surrounded by Italy, been no small task throughout its history. Officially, San Marino was born in 301 AD, although it only achieved its current size in the 1400s. Its constitution, with elements modeled on the Roman Republic, dates from the late 1500s and is still in use. Through diplomacy and statecraft, San Marino maintained its independence through the Napoleonic wars, and because it served as a refuge for many sympathizers during the fight for Italian unification, it was granted the right to remain a state. Nestled in the Apennine mountains, the country features many hills – and no flat land! The capital, also called San Marino, is proof of this, sitting on the slopes of the country’s tallest mountain: Mount Titano. As the capital, the city of San Marino houses the governmental buildings, but more famous are its three iconic towers (Guaita, Cesta, and Montale) which decorate San Marino’s national flag. If you can make the climb to the three towers situated along the peak, there are spectacular views and treacherous steps around every corner.

White buildings with blue painted trim, gleaming in the Mediterranean sun – it is no wonder that tourism thrives in the Greek islands! Despite a mild climate the region’s history has been as turbulent as the sea, although these days, it is the vibrant nightlife that makes waves, rather than politics. An example is the popular destination of Mykonos, a patch of land consisting of 33 square miles in the Aegean Sea. Its story starts with its first king (Mykonos), a relative of the god Apollo, who gave his name to the small island. For much of its long history, Mykonos was a trading post. It belonged to several empires, including the Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans. That changed in the 1820s, with the Greek revolution, in which the island’s inhabitants rose to the forefront, succeeding in gaining independence in 1830. With so much history on and around its shores, it is little wonder that Mykonos is home to one of the oldest Greek museums, opened in 1905. A walk down the streets of the capital city gives views not only of the stereotypically Greek architecture (complete with a thriving population of cats, ready and willing to welcome all visitors), but also iconic windmills - fitting for a place nicknamed the “Island of the Winds”. Whether you prefer history, sandy beaches or a sunny clime, Mykonos may be the place for you.

In a country which has been slowly reclaimed from the sea over the past few centuries, you would expect water management to be a hot topic. Indeed, the constant threat of flood has led the people in the Netherlands to develop many different technologies aimed at maintaining the delicate balance between land and sea! This struggle has left a lasting impression on the landscape, not just informing the design of fields and towns, but leading to the rise of windmills, which have become a lasting symbol of the Dutch culture. The function of windmills can be hugely varied – from milling grain to pumping water. While more modern methods have taken their place, at Kinderdijk in Southern Holland, you can still get a glimpse of how these structures shaped the Dutch countryside and culture by maintaining the water table. No fewer than 19 historic windmills are clustered along a short stretch of polder, the largest concentration in the Netherlands today! As a UNESCO site since 1997, Kinderdijk is dedicated to demonstrating how windmill keepers lived and worked through the centuries, and how windmill technology has evolved. An afternoon spent along this historic stretch will give anyone a new appreciation for the Dutch struggle against the sea, and for the men and women who called these distinctive structures home.

What could be more iconic of Washington D.C., capital of the United States, than the Capitol Building? It is difficult to miss - dominating one end of the National Mall. However, the building wasn’t always so imposing. The original architect of Washington DC, Pierre Charles L’Enfant was dismissed before a design could be completed. Instead, in 1792 a design competition ensued, but trained architects were in short supply in the newly formed United States. Despite the tumult, congress moved into a modest building in 1800 . . . only to have it burned in the War of 1812! By 1850, an expanding congress needed more space, and wings were constructed on either side. In an effort to balance the massive extensions, the large central dome was added on top of the Capitol Building, replacing the earlier version and completing the well-known silhouette. A little over a century later, in 1960, the Capitol was declared a National Historic Landmark. With a few small design changes here and there through the decades, and some major TLC in the early 2000’s, the Capitol Building continues to draw the eyes of nearly every visitor to Washington D.C.